A curated collection of research on school discipline, equity, and the school-to-prison pipeline — organized by topic. Washington-specific research is listed first in each section, followed by national studies with direct relevance to Washington practice and policy.
Discipline & the Pipeline — Washington Research
News Coverage: Updated WA Discipline Rules (June 2025)
Washington State Standard, June 23, 2025. News coverage of OSPI’s adoption of the updated WAC 392-400 discipline rules and reactions to them. “Washington updates student discipline rules for public schools”
ERDC: Juvenile Justice Involved Youth Publications
Washington State Education Research & Data Center. Longitudinal research tracking education outcomes for youth who have had contact with the juvenile justice system. Documents educational disruption, credit gaps, and re-enrollment challenges. erdc.wa.gov
Improving Institutional Education Outcomes: Final Report (2022)
Documents educational conditions and outcomes for youth in Washington’s juvenile institutions, including data on students in foster care and experiencing homelessness who become involved with the justice system.
Discipline & the Pipeline — National Research
USCCR: “Beyond Suspensions” (2019)
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. Landmark federal report documenting racial and disability-based disparities in school discipline nationwide. Includes state-by-state data and policy recommendations. Required reading for anyone working on discipline equity. usccr.gov
APA Zero Tolerance Task Force Report (2008)
American Psychological Association. Seminal review finding that zero-tolerance policies do not improve school safety, do not improve student behavior, and disproportionately affect students of color and students with disabilities. The evidentiary foundation for reform efforts over the following decade.
Learning Policy Institute: Fostering Belonging, Transforming Schools — The Impact of Restorative Practices (2023)
Report by Sean Darling-Hammond examining restorative practices in California middle schools and their association with discipline and academic outcomes. learningpolicyinstitute.org
Equity & Disparities — Washington Research
OSPI Practice Brief: Reducing and Eliminating Disparities (2019)
OSPI guidance document on strategies for reducing racial and disability-based discipline disparities. Includes self-assessment tools and implementation examples from Washington districts.
Equity & Disparities — National Research
USCCR: “Beyond Suspensions” (2019)
See above under Discipline & the Pipeline. Also the primary national source on racial and disability disparities in discipline.
Restorative Practices
Learning Policy Institute: Fostering Belonging, Transforming Schools (2023)
See above. Documents discipline and academic outcomes associated with restorative practices.
Seattle Public Schools: Restorative Practices Program
Seattle Public Schools has been implementing restorative practices district-wide since 2015. Annual reports document changes in suspension rates and school climate. Contact SPS for current implementation data. seattleschools.org
Trauma-Informed & PBIS/MTSS Approaches
REL Northwest: Exploring Implementation of Trauma-Engaged Practices in Alaska Schools (2025)
Regional Educational Laboratory Northwest. Descriptive study of how Alaska schools implement trauma-engaged practices and what is associated with stronger implementation. ies.ed.gov
OSPI: PBIS/MTSS Resources & Intervention Mapping
OSPI’s multi-tiered systems of support resources, including implementation guides and data tools for Washington districts. ospi.k12.wa.us — MTSS
Juvenile Justice & Diversion
Statewide Youth Diversion Report (2025)
Washington State Minority and Justice Commission, Youth Justice Committee. Reviews national diversion research and state funding channels, analyzes 2017–2023 juvenile court data on formal diversion, and describes diversion program models including school-based diversion. courts.wa.gov — Statewide Youth Diversion Report 2025 (PDF)
ERDC: Juvenile Justice Involved Youth Publications
See above under Washington Research. Includes longitudinal tracking of youth from school discipline through justice involvement and re-entry.